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Identifying Aquarium Fish Diseases

Bacterial, Fungal, Non-Infectious, Viral, and Protozoan Ailments

Some fish diseases are common and others are rare but knowing their characteristics is helpful in the prevention and cure.

Disease can break out in a fish tank very quickly and you have to first identify the type of disease before you can take action. Within a disease group, there are different symptoms and that can make identification even more difficult. This article will explain five disease groups and how fish are affected.

Bacterial Disease in Fish

The bacteria are transmitted by fish having made contact with other diseased fish. Bacterial fish diseases and infections are very common and are one of the most difficult health problems to deal with. Bacteria can enter the fish’s body through the gills or skin or it can stay on the surface of the fish’s body.

There are four types of bacterial infections:

• Bacterial gill disease –the gills are the primary target
• Systemic bacterial disease – bacteria invades the fish’s body and damages internal organs
• Bacterial body ulcers – lesions on the fish’s body that can be shallow or deep
• Fin rot – most likely resulting from environmental stress

There are several reasons why fish can become stressed. The most common reasons are poor water quality, parasites, overcrowding the tank or sudden changes in temperature

Fungal Diseases in Fish

This disease is caused by various groups of aquatic fungi. Fish will develop white, grey or brown cotton-like growths on their skin, gills or fins. Fish will develop breathing problems if the growths are on the gills. There are always fungal spores in an aquarium. An outbreak will occur on a fish that has scraped or damaged its skin or gills.

Non-Infectious Fish Diseases

Non-infectious diseases can be caused by simple things such as environmental, nutritional, or genetic situations. Other causes can be low oxygen or high ammonia levels, plus many more natural causes.

The three categories: environmental, nutritional, and genetic.

• Environmental diseases - include high ammonia, high nitrite, low oxygen or toxins in the aquarium.
• Nutritional diseases - can be difficult to identify. It is usually due to a lack of vitamins, such as vitamin C.
• Genetic abnormalities - can be present in any fish, such as lack of a tail or an extra tail.

Viral Diseases in Fish

Viruses are small infections that multiply within the cells of a fish. They are very difficult to detect because they are small. As the infection progresses, the fish will darken and the eyes will bulge with traces of bleeding around the eye. The gills will grow pale and may bleed. Because of the bleeding, the fish will become oxygen deprived. These are one of the more common diseases found in aquariums.

Protozoan Fish Diseases

These are other common diseases found in the aquarium.

Here are some examples:

• Velvet or Rust – the fish develops clamped fins, difficulty in breathing and yellow or light brown dust on the fish’s body
• Costia – characterized by milky cloudiness on skin
• Hexamita- the fish’s feces is slimy and white
• Ich (Ichthyphthirious) – these are salt-like specks on the body and fins accompanied by excessive slime. The fish has breathing problems, clamped fins, and loss of appetite.

General Prevention of Fish Disease

To reduce the risk of disease, be sure to do the following:

• Clean the filter on a regular basis
• Don’t over feed your fish
• Keep the chemical levels stabilized
• Maintain a steady water temperature
• Don’t overcrowd your tank

Hospital Tanks

If only some of the fish in your aquarium are sick, you can isolate the diseased ones in a hospital tank. Buy a cheap aquarium and keep it on hand for administering medication. After the fish are put back into their aquarium, be sure to clean the tank thoroughly.

CORAL REEFS in Southeast Asia

People have coexisted with coral reef ecosystems in Southeast Asia for thousands of years. With more than 350 million people living within 50 km of the coast, coral reefs are important not only in local communities’ cultures, but are also critical to the economic health of these nations.

Despite their worth, coral reefs in Southeast Asia face unprecedented threat levels from human activities. The population explosion during the last 50 years is driving many of the current pressures and is creating elevated, often unsustainable demand on both the terrestrial and marine resources of the region. These pressures are jeopardizing the incredible value of coral reefs, whose loss would have significant economic impacts for the region.

Key findings of the report include:

• Biological endowment. Southeast Asia contains nearly 100,000 square kilometers of coral reefs, almost 34 percent of the world total. With over 600 of the almost 800 reef-building coral species, these reefs have the highest levels of marine biodiversity on earth. Southeast Asia is also the global center of biodiversity for coral reef fish, mollusks, and crustaceans. The region also contains 51 of the world’s 70 mangrove species and 23 of the 50 seagrass species.
• The economic value associated with coral reefs in Southeast Asia is substantial. The value of the region’s sustainable coral reef fisheries alone is US$2.4 billion per year. In addition, coral reefs are vital to food security, employment, tourism, pharmaceutical research, and shoreline protection. The coral reefs of Indonesia and the Philippines provide annual economic benefits estimated at US$1.6 billion and US$1.1 billion per year, respectively.
• Threats to reefs. The heavy reliance on marine resources across Southeast Asia has resulted in the overexploitation and degradation of many coral reefs, particularly those near major population centers. The main threats include overfishing, destructive fishing practices, and sedimentation and pollution from land-based sources. Human activities now threaten an estimated 88 percent of Southeast Asia’s coral reefs, jeopardizing their biological and economic value to society. For 50 percent of these reefs, the level of threat is “high” or “very high.” Only 12 percent of reefs are at low risk.
• Effective management is key to maintaining coastal resources, but, is inadequate across much of the region. Some 646 marine protected areas (MPAs) cover an estimated 8 percent of the coral reefs. Of the 332 MPAs whose management effectiveness could be determined, only 14 percent were rated as effectively managed, 48 percent have partially effective management, and 38 percent have inadequate management.
• Lack of information. Despite widespread recognition that coral reefs are severely threatened, information about the status and nature of the threats to specific reef areas is limited. This lack of information inhibits effective decisionmaking concerning coastal resources. The Reefs at Risk project was developed to address this deficiency by creating standardized indicators that raise awareness about threats to coral reefs and to highlight the linkages between human activity and coral reef condition.

Zamboanga City Coastal Zone

COASTAL ZONE/AREA PROFILE OF ZAMBOANGA CITY’S WETLANDS, LAGOONS AND BEACHES

HABITAT AND ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF WETLANDS, LAGOONS AND BEACHES

a. Wetland Biological and Ecological Functions

Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. An immense variety of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, and mammals can be part of a wetland ecosystem. Physical and chemical features such as climate, landscape shape (topology), geology, and the movement and abundance of water help to determine the plants and animals that inhabit each wetland. The complex, dynamic relationships among the organisms inhabiting the wetland environment are referred to as food webs.

Wetlands provide great volumes of food that attract many animal species. These animals use wetlands for part of or all of their life-cycle. Dead plant leaves and stems break down in the water to form small particles of organic material called "detritus." This enriched material feeds many small aquatic insects, shellfish, and small fish that are food for larger predatory fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.

The biological, chemical, and physical operations and attributes of a wetland are known as wetland functions. Some typical wetland functions include: wildlife habitat and food chain support, surface water retention or detention, groundwater recharge, and nutrient transformation. Distinct from these intrinsic natural functions are human uses of and interaction with wetlands. Society's utilization and appraisal of wetland resources is referred to as wetland values, which include: support for commercially valuable fish and wildlife, flood control, supply of drinking water, enhancement of water quality, and recreational opportunities.

A watershed is a geographic area in which water, sediments, and dissolved materials drain from higher elevations to a common low-lying outlet, basin, or point on a larger stream, lake, underlying aquifer, or estuary. Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology and hydrology of the watershed. The combination of shallow water, high levels of nutrients, and high primary productivity is ideal for the growth of organisms that form the base of the food web and feed many species of fish, amphibians, shellfish, and insects. Many species of birds and mammals rely on wetlands for food, water, and shelter, especially during migration and breeding. Wetlands' microbes, plants, and wildlife are part of global cycles for water, nitrogen, and sulfur. Furthermore, scientists are beginning to realize that atmospheric maintenance may be an additional wetlands function. Wetlands store carbon within their plant communities and soil instead of releasing it to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Thus wetlands help to moderate global climate conditions.

Water Quality

Wetlands have important filtering capabilities for intercepting surface water runoff from higher dry land before the runoff reaches open water. As the runoff water passes through, the wetlands retain excess nutrients and some pollutants, and reduce sediment that would clog waterways and affect fish and amphibian egg development. In addition to improving water quality through filtering, some wetlands maintain stream flow during dry periods, and many replenish groundwater.

Flood Protection

Wetlands function as natural sponges that trap and slowly release surface water, rain, snowmelt, groundwater, and flood waters. Trees, root mats, and other wetland vegetation also slow the speed of flood waters and distributes them more slowly over the floodplain. This combined water storage and braking action lowers downstream flood heights and reduces erosion. Wetlands within and downstream of urban areas are particularly valuable, counteracting the greatly increased rate and volume of surface water runoff from pavement and buildings. The holding capacity of wetlands helps control floods. Preserving and restoring wetlands can often provide the level of flood control otherwise provided by expensive dredge operations and levees.

Shoreline Erosion

The ability of wetlands to control erosion is so valuable that some states are restoring wetlands in coastal areas to buffer the storm surges from hurricanes and tropical storms. Wetlands at the margins of lakes, rivers, bays, and the ocean protect shorelines and stream banks against erosion. Wetland plants hold the soil in place with their roots, absorb the energy of waves, and slow the flow of stream or river currents along the shore.

Fish and Wildlife Habitat

More than one-third of the population mainly in the Philippines threatened and endangered species live only in wetlands, and nearly half require wetlands at some point in their lives. Many other animals and plants depend on wetlands for survival. Estuarine and marine fish and shellfish, various birds, and certain mammals must have coastal wetlands to survive. Most commercial and game fish breed and raise their young in coastal marshes and estuaries. Menhaden, flounder, sea trout, spot, croaker, and striped bass are among the more familiar fish that depend on coastal wetlands. Shrimp, oysters, clams, and blue and Dungeness crabs likewise need these wetlands for food, shelter, and breeding grounds.

(http://www.mass.gov/czm/waecofun.htm)

b. General Ecology of Lagoons

High nutrient concentrations are often present in Lagoons as a result of both riverine nutrient inputs and effective nutrient recycling between the sediments and the water column. Lagoons are, therefore, often highly productive aquatic environments. A comparison of productivity land biomass estimates for lagoons around the world (Barnes, 1980) clearly indicates that Lagoons are characterized by exceptionally high productivity and biomass, compared to other aquatic ecosystems.

The following features provide lagoons with their distinctive characteristics.
· the high degree of shelter from tidal and current action;

· the relatively stable salinity gradients;

· the soft mud and/or sand substrates;

· the well-mixed nature of the water column through wind action;

· extreme shallowness;

· organic richness;

· rapidity with which they change (over geological time scales);

In climates with seasonal rainfall, and where major inputs of freshwater exist a pronounced seasonal variation in salinity and/or water level. In comparison with estuaries, contributions of phytoplankton and submerged macrophytes in lagoons are more important in production processes. Most of the production is consumed within the system, and there is less export of nutrients and organic material due to the closed nature of lagoons and of the unimportance of tidal fluxes. Carbon sources include phytoplankton, ;benthic and epiphytic algae and detritus derived from macrophytes. The latter detrital source is especially important as a source of carbon. The pond weed, Potamogeton ppectinatus decays very rapidly within the lagoon environment. Studies by Howard-Williams and Davies (1979, cited by Barnes 1980) suggest that under environmental conditions of 15-26⁰ C temperature and 5-11 ppt salinity, most nutrient release from Potamogeton occurred during its first week of decay, and decay processes very largely complete within 128 days. Within lagoons, detrital enrichment via bacterial heterotrophs is the dominant trophic pathway supplying energy to biological consumers.

Most of the consumers are thought to acquire detritus, benthic algae and epiphytes in an indiscriminate fashion via deposit feed and/or browsing. Among vertebrates within lagoons (both birds and fish) most species are opportunistic omnivores or carnivores.

In summary, lagoons are extremely productive environments due largely to high nutrient inputs from surrounding land drainages, as well as efficient nutrient re-cycling. This high productivity supports lagoon fisheries for both fish and shell fish. Lagoons are ephemeral environments (on geological time scales) evolving rapidly into other types of semi-aquatic, habitats (marshes, swamps). Simultaneous with this succession is a gradual shift from high salinity conditions to freshwater. Human activities within lagoon watersheds often serve to increase the succession rate of lagoons towards their ultimate terrestrial end-state.

o the high degree of shelter from tidal and current action;

o the relatively stable salinity gradients;

o the soft mud and/or sand substrates;

o the well-mixed nature of the water column through wind action;

o extreme shallowness;

o organic richness;

o rapidity with which they change (over geological time scales);

o in climates with seasonal rainfall, and where major inputs of freshwater exist a pronounced seasonal variation in salinity and/or water level.

In comparison with estuaries, contributions of phytoplankton and submerged macrophytes in lagoons are more important in production processes. Most of the production is consumed within the system, and there is less export of nutrients and organic material due to the closed nature of lagoons and of the unimportance of tidal fluxes. Carbon sources include phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae and detritus derived from macrophytes. The latter detrital source is especially important as a source of carbon. The pond weed, Potamogeton ppectinatus decays very rapidly within the lagoon environment. Studies by Howard-Williams and Davies (1979, cited by Barnes 1980) suggest that under environmental conditions of 15-26⁰ C temperature and 5-11 ppt salinity, most nutrient release from Potamogeton occurred during its first week of decay, and decay processes very largely complete within 128 days. Within lagoons, detrital enrichment via bacterial heterotrophs is the dominant trophic pathway supplying energy to biological consumers.

Socio-economic Characteristics, Issues and Community Dependence on the Lake and/or Lagoons in General

Lake has sometimes; most commonly has fishing villages with most of its population are active fishermen, although many others depend indirectly on the fisheries. The specific methods of fishing are a reflection of the particular characteristics of the community.

The complex mix of resources in and around the Lakes, lagoons, water, fish, land, forests and fauna, have an interrelated effect on community life. It is difficult to precisely arrive at a geographical area, and consequently, at the communities which should be included in a resource management plan for the lakes and lagoons. More specifically, farm land, mostly paddy fields, is spread all around the Lakes/lagoons and irrigation water with pesticides like Thimet and Ecalux and fertilizers drain straight into the Lakes/lagoons. Three distinct communities can be identified as having crucial linkages to the Lakes and lagoons and its resource management:

a. the fishermen (traditional and non-traditional),

b. the farmers who live around the lake/lagoons, and

c. those who depend on the forest resources in the Lake/lagoon catchment area for both their livelihood and to meet their fuel/timber requirements.

c. Beaches Ecology and Habitat

Beach is a geological landform along the shoreline of a body of water. It usually consists of loose particles which are often composed of rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, or cobble. The particles of which the beach is composed can sometimes instead have biological origins, such as shell fragments or coralline algae fragments.

Beaches often occur along coastal areas, where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments.

Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word "beach", beaches are not only found by the ocean: beaches also occur at the margin of the land along lakes and rivers where sediments are reworked or deposited.

· small systems in which the rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents; or

· geological units of considerable size.

A beach habitat is an unstable environment which exposes plants and animals to changeable and potentially harsh conditions. Some small animals burrow into the sand and feed on material deposited by the waves. Crabs, insects and shorebirds feed on these beach dwellers. The endangered Piping Plover and some tern species rely on beaches for nesting. Sea turtles also lay their eggs on ocean beaches. Seagrasses and other beach plants grow on undisturbed areas of the beach and dunes.

Ocean beaches are habitats with organisms adapted to salt spray, tidal overwash, and shifting sands. Some of these organisms are found only on beaches. Examples of these beach organisms in the southeast US include plants like sea oats, sea rocket, beach elder, beach morning glory aka Ipomoea pes-caprae, and beach peanut, and animals such as mole crabs aka Hippoidea, coquina clams aka Donax, ghost crabs, and white beach tiger beetles.

Socio-economic Characteristics, Issues and Community Dependence on Beaches in in the Philippines and in Zamboanga City

Main resources

The principal stocks exploited in the Philippines are small pelagics, tuna and other large pelagic fishes, demersal fishes and invertebrates.

Small pelagic (surface- and mid-water-dwelling) fishes as a group comprise predominantly roundscads (Decapterus spp., Carangidae), anchovies (Stolephorus spp., Engraulidae), sardines (Sardinella spp., Clupeidae) and mackerels (Rastrelliger spp., Scombridae). Also included in this group are the round herrings (Clupeidae), flying fishes (Exocoetidae) and halfbeaks (Hemiramphidae).

The small pelagic fisheries comprise an important segment of the country’s fisheries industry. Small pelagics are considered the main source of inexpensive animal protein for lower-income groups in the Philippines.

The large pelagic fishes consist of tunas and tuna-like species, such as billfish, swordfish and marlin. The tuna fisheries became the largest and most valuable fisheries in the Philippines during the mid-1970s, when payao was introduced. The country became the number one producer of tunas in Southeast Asia in the 1980s. When the catch rate of tunas in the Philippines started declining in the late 1980s, Filipino fishing companies started to fish in international waters.

Fishermen communities and dependence in the Philippines

Municipal fisherfolk are considered the “poorest among the poor”. In 2000, households whose heads were fishers had a significantly higher poverty incidence than households in general. Their daily income was roughly the retail value of 2 kg of fish. Low incomes can be attributed to declining fish catch, estimated to be about 2 kg per day, down from the 20 kg per day that was the average catch during the 1970s.

Households of fishers and those in the fishing industry also had heads with relatively lower education levels compared with households in general. Fishers’ households had lower access rates to basic necessities like safe water, sanitary toilets and electricity than other households, and were more likely to live in makeshift houses or were squatting. Also, the average size of households of fishers and of those in the fishing industry was greater than the national average (Israel, 2004).

According to the 2002 Census of Fisheries, there were 1.8 million municipal and commercial fishing operators. This was a three-fold increase from the 584 000 fishing operators recorded in 1980. Municipal fishing dominated the fishing industry in terms of numbers of operators. In 2002, 1.78 million operators (99.6%) were engaged in municipal fishing compared with only 7 800 in commercial fishing operations.

The vast majority of municipal fishing operations (1.752 million or 98.4%) were individual operations. At 1.7 million, male operators accounted for 94.5% of the municipal fishing operators, with a median age of 41 years.

In 2002, out of 7 200 commercial fishing operations, 7 190 were operated by individuals, and almost all (98.6%) were males, with a median age of 39 years.

Women have a role in fisheries and helping in the livelihood of the family (Siason, 2004). Their roles include: (1) fish marketing or vending, (2) fish processing, (3) fry gathering, (4) gear preparation, (5) fishing, (6) net mending, and (7) fishing boat ownership and operation.

Economic Role of Fisheries in the National Economy

In 2003, the fisheries sector had a total value of US$ 1 832 million, accounting for 2.2% of GDP. The Philippines ranked 11th among the top fish producing countries in the world for 2001, accounting for 2.2% of global production. The Philippines is the world’s largest producer of carageenophyte seaweed.

However, globally in the last 20 years, the Philippines’ ranking in world aquaculture production steadily slid from 4th place in 1985 to 12th at present. From 5% of global farmed fish supply, the Philippines now contributes only a little over 1% of world production.

Demand

Fish demand is robust in the Philippines, with three main uses.

• Domestic human consumption is by far the largest single use (2 335 474 t in 2003). The most important species consumed are roundscad, Indian sardines, frigate tuna, big-eyed scad, fimbriated sardines and anchovies, which originate from marine waters and are augmented by imports and milkfish and tilapia from aquaculture and inland fisheries.
• Fish exports are the second largest use of supply (155 129 t in 2003). The main exported products are tuna, which originate from commercial and municipal marine fisheries, and shrimp from aquaculture.
• The smallest portion of demand (332 268 in 2003) is for non-food uses. This consists mainly of imported fishmeal for animal feeds, and snails caught in inland waters for duck feed.

The supply divides as about 83% for human consumption and 17% for exports and non-food uses.

2. STRUCTURE/COMPOSITION/LOCATION

A. Geography

Zamboanga City is located at the geographical coordinates of approximately within 121° 53’50” and 122° 23’25” east longitude and 6° 53’50” and 7° 29’20” north. It is geographically situated in the southernmost tip of Zamboanga Peninsula. The city has a total land area of 33,380 hectares or 378.80 sq. km., delineated by the municipal boundaries of Midsalip on the north, Labangan on the northwest and east, Lakewood on the west and Dumalinao and tigbao on the southwest.

B. Topography

The terrain is generally sloping from shorelines, gradually becoming hilly and mountainous towards the center of the peninsula. There are some flat lands, most of which are narrow strips along the east coast. The urban center is generally flat with getle slope to the interior, having recorded elevation of 1,346 meters.

The mountains towards the center elevates as high as 1,028 meters but not less than 500 meters above sea level. These are formed due to subsequent upliftment by tectonic stresses that produce high relief landscape. Their slope range from steep to severely dissected mountain ranges. Erosion and landsliding are the main processes taking place in the area.

C. Climate

Zamboanga City falls under the third type of climate. Seasons are not very pronounced, relatively dry from October, November and January to April, minimal rain in the months of May and December and very wet from June to September.

The highest rainfall occurs on the month of June with 273.4 mm while the lowest rainfall falls on the month of March with 11.9 mm. The average annual rainfall is 96.4 millimeters.

D. Ethnic Groups

The city's population consists predominantly of Chavacano speaking Zamboanguenos who comprises 44.7%. Hence, Chavacano is considered the mother tongue. The Visayans/Cebuanos rank next with 20.79%, followed by Tausogs, 14.94%; Samals, 6.53%; Tagalogs, 3.80%; Ilongos, 2.17%; Yakans, 2.10% and other groups, 5.20%.

E. Resources

Agriculture. TTWith the geographic location and climate condition of the city, agricultural production is generally favorable. Crops production such as coconut, banana, mango among others continuous to increase, 5% in 2003 and 7% in 2004. Rice and corn productions showed an opposite trends. Although rice production declined 12% in 2002-2003, it slightly increased by 4% last year. Corn production on the other hand, had increased by 5% in 2002-2003 and decreased last year by 4%. The devastating effect of El Niño and La Niña for the past years and conversion of agricultural lands to other uses mainly contributed to its production performance. Nevertheless, the city government, in order to increase its major crops in the city, tries to provide support services like farm-to-market roads, post harvest facilities, farm machinery and equipment and even research and development support.

Livestock & Poultry. TTLivestock and poultry production which is composed of hog, chicken, cattle, carabao, ducks and goat, showed an irregular trend, an increase of 10% in 2002-2003 and a negative rate of 6.4% last year. Various programs and strategies were implemented and more are lined up by the Department of Agriculture, City Agriculturist Office and other government and non-government organizations.

Fishing. TTFishing production is getting more productive despite of numerous intrigues. It is composed mainly of municipal and commercial fishing and it continued to grow by 7% in 2002-2003 and 2% in 2003-2004. Production for aquaculture and seaweeds farming had an erratic movement. In 2002-2003, both productions decreased, 29% for seaweed farming and 28% for aquaculture. Fortunately, last year both seaweed farming and aquaculture posted an increased of 28% and 27% respectively. This is a good sign for those involve in fishing, it only shows the increasing demand of the produce.

F. Economy

There had been an increase of exporters for the past years dealing mostly with marine products and agricultural products.

Although the city’s export performance had increased in 2002 and 2003, sadly it dropped by 25% last year. In the city, there are six (6) major industries, there are processed aqua-marine products, processed food, coconut-based poducts, gifts, toys & housewares, furnitures & wood products and fruits. Many political, social and economic factors had contributed to this poor performance like low demand and price of products in the worl market.

The top five main agri-fishery-industrial products experted for 2004 are octopus, canned tuna, assorted frozen marine products, dried seaweeds and coconut oil. Countries like USA, Japan, Canada, South Africa and Korea are the top five exporters of the city.

3. STATUS OF USES/EXPLOITATION

Fisheries Production

Global Production

This database contains the volume of aquatic species caught by country or area, by species items, by FAO major fishing areas, and year, for all commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included.

Philippines Production (Fao Fishery Statistic)

Global Capture Production

This database contains the annual volume of aquatic species caught by country or area, species items and FAO major fishing areas for all commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes.

Philippines Capture Production (Fao Fishery Statistic)

Global Aquaculture Production

This database contains statistics on production volume and value price per kilogram by species, country or area, fishing area and culture aquatic environment.

Philippines Aquaculture Production (Fao Fishery Statistic)

4. PROBLEM MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND RELATED CONCERNS

Management applied to the main fisheries

In the Philippines, critical issues affecting fisheries (Green et al., 2003) include:

• open access;
• overfishing and excessive fishing pressure;
• lack of management;
• inappropriate exploitation patterns;
• post-harvest losses;
• small- and large-scale fisheries conflicts;
• habitat degradation;
• lack of research and information; and
• inadequacy of technical and human resource capabilities, particularly among managers and the agencies concerned in analysing fisheries

In February 1998, the Philippine Fisheries Code (Republic Act 8550) was signed into law. The Code consolidates all laws pertaining to the fisheries sector and repeals or modifies previous statutes that are inconsistent with it. It declares as a state policy that achieving food security is the main consideration in the development, management, and conservation of fisheries and aquatic resources. Its provisions reflect a strong adherence to long-term sustainability, fully recognizing its multiple dimensions and complex elements in the fisheries context through several prohibitive and regulatory measures seeking to balance protection with reasonable and responsible use (Ingles, 2004b).

Earlier, in 1991, the Local Government Code (LGC) devolved authority over the management of municipal waters to Local Government Units (LGUs) within the parameters set by national fisheries legislation and policies.

The establishment of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMCs) at the national, provincial and municipal levels has established a legal commitment by the government to involve stakeholders in the development and management of the fisheries industry.

The Government of the Philippines’ most significant policy shift in the past decade has been the introduction of joint management mechanisms of the fisheries sector, involving both the central government and the municipalities, and the government and the fishers (through the FARMCs). The Philippine Community-Based Coastal Resource Management (CB-CRM) programme has been very successful at awareness building, with notable pockets of success in implementation. The Philippines has been a leader in devolution of authority for coastal resource management through the LGC and has thus become an example for such actions. However, the challenges of managing fisheries resources in a sustainable manner still remain in most areas.

Silvestre and Pauly (2004) outlined seven main categories of management intervention that the authors believed to be appropriate, given the status of coastal fisheries in the developing countries of Asia. These management interventions are:

1) Limited entry and effort reduction.

2) Gear, area and temporal restrictions.

3) Improvement of marketing and post-harvest facilities.

4) Enhancement of awareness and participation of stakeholders.

5) Reduction of environmental impacts.

6) Institutional strengthening and upgrading.

7) Enhancement of research and information.

Some of the fisheries management measures in the Philippines are considered below, using the above categorizations.

Limited entry and effort reduction

Licensing in the Philippines is still generally viewed as a statistical and revenue generating exercise rather than as an effective management tool to limit entry and control fishing effort. The frameworks for municipal and commercial fisheries registration and licensing have now been prepared and efforts have already commenced to put them in place.

Gear, area and temporal restrictions

Measures influencing composition of catches in terms of species and size, and to a certain extent the sex and maturity stage, include: (1) technological controls or limitations, e.g. gear restrictions, including mesh regulations, hook size control and trawl bans; (2) spatial restrictions, e.g. marine sanctuaries and area closures; and (3) temporal restrictions, e.g. seasonal closures.

Table 4. Examples of regulatory instruments influencing selectivity of fishing operations in the Philippines

Food Security

Bernacsek (1996), writing on the role of fisheries in food security in the Philippines, stated that:

“There are clear indications that fisheries quantity production is approaching real limits to further growth. Government of the Philippines fisheries policy should re-orient and re-focus to emphasize growth in product value added and increase in profitability, rather than the historical focus on quantity output. A new development climate needs to be created which will facilitate active entrepreneurial exploration of new markets for fish products and new export opportunities. Parallel to this policy shift, sustainability of domestic production needs to be achieved through effective management in order for producers to be able to provide a secure source of raw materials for processors and marketers.”

Constraints

In their 2004 paper, Luna et al. identified the following issues confronting Philippine marine fisheries today:

• depleted fishery resources;
• degraded coastal environment and critical fisheries habitats;
• low catches and incomes, and dissipated resource rents;
• physical losses and reduced value of catches due to improper post-harvest practices and inefficient marketing;
• inequitable distribution of benefits from resource use;
• intersectoral and intrasectoral conflicts;
• poverty among small-scale fishers; and
• inadequate systems and structures for fisheries management.

Open access is one of the main interconnections among all the issues identified.

5. MANAGEMENT INTERVENED FOR THE ECOSYSTEM

Development Prospects and Strategies

Luna et al. (2004) recommended six critical actions to reverse the decline in Philippine marine fisheries:

• reduction and rationalization of fishing effort;
• protection, rehabilitation and enhancement of coastal habitats;
• improved utilization of harvests;
• enhanced local stewardship and management of resources;
• supplemental and alternative livelihoods for fishers; and
• capacity building and institutional strengthening.

On the proposed re-structuring of the aquaculture subsector into an efficient and sustainable agribusiness, Bernacsek (1996) recommended that the Government of the Philippines should withdraw from the fish pond ownership business. All ponds should be privatized, with existing landholders having first right of option to purchase at market prices (minus depreciated value of investment).

Research

The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 provides for the creation of a National Fisheries Research and Development Institute (NFRDI), to serve as the primary research arm of BFAR. The major project of the interim NFRDI is the National Stock Assessment Project, which has been designed to institutionalize stock assessment so that continuous and reliable time series data will be available for the development of sound fisheries management strategies.

State universities, such as the University of the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) and the Marine Science Institute (MSI) of the University of the Philippines, Diliman, have active research programmes on marine science and fisheries.

For aquaculture, the presence of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC AQD) in the Philippines has resulted in the filling of many gaps in Philippine aquaculture research. Through a system of consultation and discussion with the industry and the local aquaculture R&D sector, SEAFDEC AQD prioritizes its research and avoids duplication of work with local institutions. SEAFDEC AQD research outputs are published mostly in international refereed journals.

SEAFDEC AQD has the following ongoing programmes: (1) Broodstock and Seed Quality Improvement; (2) Sustainable Aquaculture Technologies; (3) Collaborative R&D Programme with Philippine’s DA-BFAR; (4) SEAFDEC-JIRCAS Collaborative Programme; (5) Promotion of Mangrove-Friendly Aquaculture in Southeast Asia; (6) Fish Diseases Diagnostic Methodologies for Aquaculture; (7) Aquaculture for Rural Development; and (8) Supply of Good Quality Seed.

Fisheries R&D is being coordinated (and funded to some extent) by the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development Council under the Department of Science and Technology and the Bureau of Agricultural Research under the Department of Agriculture.

The other state universities engaged in aquaculture R&D include the Central Luzon State University (CLSU) and Mindanao State University (MSU).

BFAR has several aquaculture centres and stations throughout the country, which provide aquaculture extension services.

Some private companies (e.g. feed companies) also engage in aquaculture research and extension.

The Philippine fisheries industry is currently preparing a Comprehensive National Fisheries Industry Development Plan (CNFIDP), and among the issues that have been raised are the inadequate programmes of R&D and Extension, and lack of commercial impact. The causes include: (1) limited government funding; (2) limited investment by the private sector; (3) lack of awareness of commercial realities among too many researchers and extension workers; and (4) the blinkered focus of many researchers – too focused on basic research and too publication-oriented. This situation results in: (1) poor adoption of new technologies by industry; (2) loss of competitiveness with other animal farming industries and in the export market; and (3) wastage of valuable R&D and Extension resources. The proposed solution includes: (1) focusing government programmes of R&D and Extension towards immediate needs of the aquaculture sector; and (2) increasing R&D and Extension investments from the private sector.

Education

There are several state universities and colleges engaged in fisheries education in the country. However, only a few (e.g. CLSU, UPV and MSU) have been recognized to have significantly contributed to fisheries education and R&D in the country.

All educational institutions in fisheries are supported by the state. There are more than 40 state colleges and schools of fisheries under the aegis of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), with seven under the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) (Juliano, 2004).

Foreign Aid

Foreign assistance in the form of loans and grants shifted more to conservation and resource management after the late 1980s.

An ongoing major fisheries project, Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest (FISH) Project, builds upon the foundation and lessons learned from the USAID-funded Coastal Resource Management Project (CRMP) and other projects to achieve the next crucial benchmark in managing fisheries and coastal resources in the Philippines. This benchmark calls for integrated fisheries management driven by informed, disciplined and cooperative stakeholders at national and local levels of engagement.

The FISH Project is a seven-year (2003–2010) technical assistance project funded by USAID and implemented in partnership with BFAR, other national government agencies, LGUs and non-governmental (NGO) and other assisting organizations. The FISH Project activities focus on four target implementation areas: Calamianes Islands (Palawan); Danajon Bank (Bohol, Southern Leyte, Leyte, Cebu); Surigao del Sur; and Tawi-tawi.

FISH is expected to result in a 10% increase in fish stocks by 2010 in the four target implementation areas. To achieve this, national and local activities will be implemented to build capacity, improve the national policy framework and develop an informed constituency for fisheries management.

The Philippine fisheries sector continues to need external assistance, particularly for capacity building.

Bangus CuLtuRe_Learn More

INTRODUCTION

The culture of milkfish has been developed for a century in Southeast Asia countries-notably in the Philippines, Taiwan and Indonesia where it has largely been relied upon as important source of protein (BAS, 1993).

Milkfish (Chanos chanos): the most important fish specie cultured in the country, its farming is a century’s tradition which can be regarded as the backbone of Philippine aquaculture.

Traditional extensive milkfish culture is practiced at stocking density of 2,000- 3,000/ha. Intensification entails management measures for augmenting feed supply and maintaining desired water quality.

Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally known as “bangus” is extensively cultured in brackishwater and freshwater ponds. Management practices employed are the straight culture (conventional) method, progression (modular) system and the multi-size stocking method.

Over the years, there has been a big steady demand for milkfish in the country. It has also been doing well in the international market with Philippine exports increasing annually. This techno-guide based on straight culture (conventional) method generated by Brackishwater Aquaculture Center and the experiences of various progressive fishpond operations gives a good overview of how to manage your own fishponds using a site already developed.

SITE SELECTION

The site should have:

• High tidal range and can hold water at least one meter deep;
• Good water quality and more or less have constant salinity and temperature throughout the year;
• Longer dry season, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam; and
• Access to roads and water supply.
• Physico-chemical parameters:

a. temperature (22-35^oC)

b. pH (6.8-8.7)

c. Salinity (18-32 ppt)

d. Dissolved oxygen (3-5 ppm)

e. Turbidity (0.5 m)

POND PREPARATION

ACTIVITIES	NO. OF DAYS
1. Draining/Drying	1
2. Leveling and repair	7
3. Poisoning	8
4. Pond Liming	8
5.Application of organic fertilizer (chicken manure at 1,500 kl/ha)	9
6. First water intake (5 cm)	15
7. Application of inorganic fertilizer (ammonium phosphate 16-20-0, Urea 46-0-0 at 300 and 50 kg/ha respectively)	17
8. Second water intake (10-15 cm)	18
9. Third water intake (30-35 cm)	22
10. Stocking of milkfish fingerlings (3,000/ha)	24
11. Water management
12. Feeding (2nd month)
13. Harvesting	120

STOCKING DENSITY

POND	STOCK
NP	40 fry/sq m
TP	5 fingerlings/sq m
FP	2 juveniles/sq m
RP	1 grown fish/sq m

FEEDING REQUIREMENT SCHEME

Pond	Growing size (g)	Feed type	% Feed rate (Biomass)	Feeding frequency
NP	0.02-.05	Lab-lab Starter mash	8-10	5x/day
TP	0.5-10	Lab-lab Bread crumbs/rice bran	5-8	4x/day
FP	12-50	Lab-lab Bread crumbs	4-5	3x/day
RP	50-100 100-250	Lab-lab/algae Finisher Pellets	3	3-4x/day

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF MILKFISH FEED

Nutrient	Suggested level	Typical source
Crude protein	25-40%	Fish meal, soybean, corn, glutenmeal, ipil-ipil
Crude fat	7-10%	Vegetable and fish meal
Nitrogen Free-extract (Digestible carbohydrates)	25%	Yellow corn, cassava meal, rice and wheat bran, flour
Crude fiber	<8%
Vitamin, minerals mix	3-6%
Metabolized energy	>3,200 kcal/kg